📖 In-Depth Theory
The Structure of DNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule that carries genetic information in all living organisms.
DNA has a DOUBLE HELIX structure — two strands twisted around each other like a twisted ladder.
Each strand is made of NUCLEOTIDES. Each nucleotide contains:
1. A SUGAR molecule (deoxyribose)
2. A PHOSPHATE group
3. One of four BASES: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)
The two strands are held together by WEAK HYDROGEN BONDS between the bases.
COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIRING:
Bases always pair in the same way:
A pairs with T (Adenine with Thymine)
G pairs with C (Guanine with Cytosine)
This means if you know one strand's sequence, you can work out the other strand.
This complementary pairing is essential for accurate DNA replication.
Genes and the Genetic Code
A GENE is a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule that codes for a specific protein.
The base sequence acts as a CODE — it determines the sequence of amino acids that make up a protein.
Each group of three bases (a CODON) codes for a specific amino acid.
The order of amino acids determines the protein's shape → which determines its function.
With 4 bases and 3-base codons: 4³ = 64 possible codons — more than enough for 20 amino acids.
NON-CODING DNA:
Large sections of DNA between genes do not code for proteins.
Some non-coding DNA regulates when genes are switched on or off.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
Genes are first TRANSCRIBED to make mRNA (messenger RNA).
mRNA travels out of the nucleus to ribosomes.
At ribosomes, the mRNA is TRANSLATED — amino acids are assembled in the correct sequence.
The chain of amino acids folds into a specific protein shape.
DNA Replication
Before cell division, DNA must be REPLICATED (copied) so each daughter cell gets a full set.
SEMI-CONSERVATIVE REPLICATION:
1. The double helix UNWINDS and the two strands SEPARATE (hydrogen bonds break).
2. Each original strand acts as a TEMPLATE.
3. FREE NUCLEOTIDES from the nucleus pair up with complementary bases on each template strand.
4. New hydrogen bonds form between paired bases.
5. Two new identical double helices are formed — each with one original strand + one new strand.
Why semi-conservative?
Each new DNA molecule keeps ONE original strand and one newly made strand.
'Semi' = half original.
This process is highly accurate but errors (mutations) can occasionally occur.
MUTATIONS: changes in the base sequence → may alter the protein produced → may affect the organism.
⚠️ Common Mistake
A always pairs with T, and G always pairs with C — never A-G or T-C. This complementary base pairing is fixed. Students often mix up which bases pair together — use the memory: 'Apples in Trees, Cars in Garages' (A-T, C-G).